31. Pesticides in Danube River and Tributaries
by Dr. Fina Kaloyanova-Simeonova
In the Strategic Action Plan for the Danube river basin
1995-2005 agriculture is recognized as source of chemical pollution of surface
and ground water. The target up to year 2000 is significant restructuring
of pesticide use per unit land under production and conversion of farmers to
methods of integrated pest control, at least in all areas of importance for
nature conservation. The ultimate goal is to achieve an agreement between
countries on pesticides which are allowed, conditions under which pesticides may
be applied especially related to protection of ground and surface water
-criteria for allowance of pesticides use with regard to ecotoxicological
aspects. PHARE Project Danube Regional Pesticide Study was
initiated with Service Contract 95.0100, PHARE ZZ 9111/0106. The project started
May 1995 and finished 1997 /Tasheva 1997/. A Consortium of three countries -
Bulgaria (leading country). Hungary and Slovak Republic and consultants from
other 8 Danube region countries (Austria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Germany,
Moldova, Romania, Slovenia, Ukraine) participated in this study.
LITERATURE REVIEW OF THE EXISTING CONCENTRATIONS OF PESTICIDES
IN WATER AND IN AQUATIC LIFE
Pesticides concentrations in water
The pollution of surface water by pesticides may occur mainly by
four different routes:
1/. Run-off after spraying the crops.
2/. Drifts /overspray/ to waters nearby the treated fields and
atmospheric deposition.
3/. Direct water treatment by herbicides to destroy water weeds
or by insecticides for vector control.
4/. Drainage /leaching/.
Factors affecting the transport and fate of pesticides are
crops, tillage practice, soil properties, atmospheric, geologic and hydrologic
regimes. After spraying the most of the pesticides are deposited on vegetation,
soil or other surfaces. Deposits on soil remain in the top few centimeters,
where they degrade or become adsorbed on the soil and organic particles. Only a
very minor fraction contaminates surface and groundwater sources and causes
concern in aquatic toxicology and drinking water quality. This is connected with
pesticides water solubility and persistence, but water also transports soil
particles on which pesticides have been absorbed.
Pesticide misuse, spillage or inappropriate storage and handling
facilities and disposal, has been estimated to be responsible for approximately
50% of the water contamination incidents in USA /Ritter 1990, cited by Carter
1993/.Concentrations of pesticides in water are subject of many monitoring
programs around the world.
Pesticides in water were monitored in UK in 1992. The number of
samples exceeding the standard 0.1 mg/l was 3% . Herbicides atrazine, simazine,
diuron, isoproturon and mecoprop represented 96% of the positive samples. Other
herbicides also have been found as follows: TCA, chlortoluron, dalapon, MCPA,
and 2,4-D. Some of these herbicides are used predominantly in non-agricultural
situations. /Carter 1993/
In the Netherlands the upper groundwater below vulnerable soils
was analyzed for nearly 2.5 years in 8 sampling rounds. Of 18 compounds analyzed
1,3-dichlorpropene, aldicarb, ethoprophos, dinoseb, metamitron, atrazine,
desethyl- and desisopropylatrazine, metolachlor and ethylenethiourea were
repeatedly detected in the groundwater in concentrations above 0.1 microgram/l,
the EC limit for drinking water. / Loch and Verdam 1989/.
Between May and early July samples of treated water were
collected after rainfall from 33 water supplies using surface water sources.
Individual pesticides and number of supplies in which they were detected were:
atrazine-30, cyanazine /Bladex/-26, metolachlor, Dual/-21, alachlor /Lasso/,
carbofuran /Furadan/-9, metribuzin /Sencor/-4, 2,4-D-2, trifluralin /Treflan/,
butylate /Sutan/ and dicamba /Banvel/ 1 each /Wnuk et al 1987/.
Johnen /1990/ reviewed the "worst case" residue
program in ground water and raw water carried out in Germany and Switzerland in
1987/88 and 1985/88 respectively. In German programs atrazine was found at
levels 0-0.26 mg/l, pyridate 0-0.3 mg/l, bentazone 0-0.85 mg/l, chloridazon
0-0.19 mg/l, mecoprob-0.37 mg/l, 1,2-dichloropropane 0-5.1 mg/l, and simazine
0-0.14 mg/l. Atrazine was found at levels 0-0.5 mg/l, desethylatrazine 0-0.4
mg/l and TCA 0-0.9 mg/l in Swiss program.
Airborne contamination of water was studied by Wright /1994/.
Atrazine, simazine and metolachlor were found at substantial levels in surface
water with highest levels at the mouth of the Susquehanna /27, 50 and 30 ng/l
respectively /.In the first runoff after application to corn maximum
concentrations for atrazine were 215, tefluthrin 8, alachlor 88, cyanazine 50
and chlorpyrofos 4 ppb in water phase and in smaller concentrations /5-10 times
less/ in sediment phase. In shallow ground water 175 ppb atrazine, 95 alachlor
and 65 cyanazine were detected. / Schreiber and Cullum 1993/.
At recommended application rates the concentration of 2-4-D in
water has been estimated to be a maximum of 50 mg/l. Most applications would
lead to water concentrations much lower than this-between 0.1 and 1 ms/l /EHC
84, 1989/.
Levels less than 1 mg/l are encountered in the natural aquatic
systems after deliberate introduction of the ester formulations for aquatic weed
control /2-4-D / or from runoff or drift in terrestrial operations. Rapid
hydrolysis of the esters to the acid is usually assumed to minimize the duration
of exposure to esters themselves.
The risk for aquatic communities to chlorophenols appears to be
low. Assuming 10 mg/l as a typical mean concentration for any of the
chlorphenols in U.S. surface waters, the lowest chronic effects level exceeded
this concentration by one order of magnitude, while acute LC50's exceeded it by
over two orders of magnitude. Maximum concentrations reported are 100 mg/l. It
is likely to be associated with industrial pollution.
Chlor-2-Methylphenol as impurity of MCPA / about 0.3%/ and
degradation product can enter the environment. It was found in water samples
from paddy fields up to 1.4 mg/l (BUA, 1994).
Maximum concentrations of herbicides found in some rivers in
Canada are as follows: trifluralin-max.24 ng/l, bromoxynil -113 and diclofop-476
ng/l in June and undetectable at other sampling periods /March-October/. Dicamba
and 2,4-D were detected at concentrations less than 100 ng/l throughout most of
the sampling period. High levels were found possibly caused by spraying diches
or rights way near the river for dicamba 5476 ng/l and for 2,4-D 2568 ng/l.
/Muir and Grift 1987/.
In Kansas River basin atrazine often exceeded the MPL of 3.0
mg/l established by EPA. Unless research find a scientific solution to the safe
and effective use of atrazine its long term occurrence in public water sources
may pose the threat to aquatic life and to human health through ingestion of
contaminated drinking water supplies. / Pope 1993 /.
Mean monthly atrazine concentrations in 1993 in surface runoff
were in May, June and July 46, 47 and 7 ppb respectively and ranged in stream
flow less than 1 to over 200 ppb / Alberts et al 1994/. During early summer
stream flow concentrations of atrazine were >40 ppb /Prato et al 1994/.
Metolachlor in surface water collected 4 weeks after application
ranged from 0.01 to 0.13 ppb and in wells from 0.01 to 0.19 ppb /Skaggs et al
1994, Leydy 1994/. Concentrations in surface and ground water of propachlor in
USA were consistently low, the maximum being at 10 mg/l in surface and 0.12 mg/l
in ground water. The highest water concentration recorded in runoff study was 46
mg/l /EHC 147, 1990 / . In ground water atrazine was detected at 0.08 to 0.48
mg/l /Dowdy et al, 1994/, 6 ppb/l at deeper ground water /3 m/ within 2 weeks
after application and alachlor 5 ppb /Cooper and Cullum, 1993/, maximum
concentration 0.7 ppb when management practice to reduce contaminate transport
was used / Baker and Melvin 1993/.
Pesticide contamination on ground water though at relatively low
concentrations, is relatively common in areas of intensive farming or near
hazardous waste disposal sites. USEPA listed 46 pesticides as confirmed ground
water contaminants.
Pesticides in ground water were found as follows : in Germany -
36 from 173 looked for , Italy - 39 from 47, Netherlands -26, Denmark - 10,
Great Britain-30, Sweden 18./ Fielding et al, 1992, cited by Helveg 1994/. It is
very important to distinguish direct pollution due to direct spray of the water,
from leaching pollution. It is expected that the direct pollution may create
higher concentrations of all kinds of pesticides and will act more by the so
called "hurt and run" mechanism, while the leaching after field
treatment and from site of filling of sprayers or rinsing the sprayers equipment
will create low concentrations of more soluble and persistent pesticides.
Helweg, 1994 summarized published data for water concentrations
of pesticides, found in Denmark, as shown:
Pesticide Concentration range mg/l .
Direct pollution
2,4-D up to 800
Dichlorprop up to 3800
2,4-dichlorophenol up to 0.4
Atrazine up to 0.5
Leaching after field treatment
1-2 meters below fields.
Atrazine 0.01- 7.8
Bromoxynil 0.01-0.03
Dichlorprop 0.04-1.36
Hexazinone 0.1-42.7
Ioxynil 0.9
Isoproturon 0.01-0.15
MCPA 0.02-0.29
Mechlorprop 0.06-0.4
Simazine 0.02-0.09
2,4-D 0.01-1.0
Rehana et all /1995/ detected in Ganga river DDT- 3.33-5.33 ppb,
alpha BHC- 1.73-3.01 ppb, DDD- 0.88-2.41 ppb, aldrin-1.17-2.81 ppb, and dieldrin-
0.49-4.11 ppb. Dua et all /1996/ found in malaria control sprayed area in India
in water mean concentrations of DDT- 0.07 mg/l and HCH 0.18 mg/l. Concentrations
in soil were respectively 73.3 and 27 times higher. Organoclorines pesticides
were detected in sediments from four US Arctic lakes /Allen-Gil et all 1997/ at
max. 0.7 ng/g dry wt.
Pesticides concentrations in aquatic life.
Concentrations of organochlorines in nineties are much lower
than the levels detected during the late 1970s and early 1980s. A highly
insignificant correlation was found between aquatic life age and concentrations.
Some recent data are presented at table 1 .
Table N 1. Pesticides concentrations in aquatic life.
Species Place Concentrations Reference
Aquatic birds Texas DDE-9.65 mg/g Mora 1996
snowy egret eggs DDD-0.056 mg/g
1993-94 DDT-1.75 mg/g
Great blue heron Whidbey Is. DDT less than 0.4 ppm Cobb et all
eggs Washington 1995
Striped dolphins Mediter. DDT-111 m Guitart et all
melon -1990 Spanish coasts g-1 wet wt 1996
Harp seals Greenland p,p=-DDE-760 ng/g w.w. Oehme et all
blubber and sea 1995
brain.
Sturgeon Cooling water DDT and metabolites Bressa et all
24 mo old thermoelectric 28.4 mg/kg d.w. 1996 |